A LINGUSTIC STUDY OF VOCATIVE FORMS IN THE NOVEL "EMMA" BY JANE AUSTIN ASST. PROF. ENAS NAJI KADIM, (PH.D.) UNIVERSITY OF WASIT COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

This paper investigates the style of vocative forms in English language by using a novel" Emma" by Jane Austin as data. First this paper will indicate the definitions and the main lexical forms of the term vocative .Then this paper will discuss the linguistic levels of this phenomena which are the semantic , sociolinguistic , and pragmatic levels .This paper also clarifies the functions of vocative and the implications of vocatives in relation to politeness strategies in society .In addition to that this paper will indicate the main models of vocative phenomena in English language .Finally the researcher applies the statistical analysis of the vocative structures which are uttered by the characters of the novel .


Introduction
This part will focus on the phenomenon of vocative structures in English language and their linguistic features on different levels which are published by different linguists. Espinal (2013: 2) defines the term vocative as a nominal expression that is used to name the hearer/addressee, show the identity of the hearer/addressee, and indicate the properties that call the attention of the hearer/addressee. According to Leech (2006: 123), vocative is a noun phrase (also single noun) adjoined to a sentence and is used to identify the people addressed as in the statement 'Oh, Therese, I'd like to have a word with you. Well done, you boys'. Vocatives functions as sentence adverbials in the sense that they can occur at the beginning, middle, and end as in: come in, Mr.

‫اﻟﻌﺎﺷر‬ ‫اﻟدوﻟﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻣﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻣؤﺗﻣر‬ ‫واﺳط‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬ / ‫اﻟﺗرﺑﯾﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻠﯾﺔ‬
6-Anyway she's shouting away, Dad dad dad. So I say what? 7-Mum, have you ever seen a duck with a bow -tie on? C-Familiarizers e.g. guys, bud. man dud ,buddy , mate , folks , bro . All these forms are chiefly AmE, except mate, which is British English. 8-Hey, man. I'll make this real short. What's happening, man? 9-It's time to light the candles guys. 10-Got a ticket mate?

11-Howdy folks! Whatcha doing John?
D-Familiarized first names (shortened and/ or with the pet suffix -yl, -ie) e.g. Mary, Pualie, Jackie, Tom 12-Hey, Mike, grab your dominoes! 13-What I' am gonna do Jenny is I' am going to switch to this other printer 14-Look here Paulie, you come and have a look at this. E-First names in full: e.g. Marjorie, Paul, Jennier, Thomas 15-Huh, you get to do this next year, Jason. 25-Come on you reds, Come on you reds, Come on you reds -(addressing a football team during a match). Shiina (2003: 56) indicates that a vocative form which is used in utterances has different types of meanings. The following ones represent the meaning types of vocative forms.

The Semantic Level of Vocative
1-Ideational meaning which indicates the semantic meaning of lexical items in vocative forms such as pre-modifier, personal pronoun. In other words, these lexical items indicates features such as male /female, marital status, social features, etc.
2-Textual meaning which includes the textual features on all levels such as length, position, frequency, etc.

The Sociolinguistic Level of Vocative
Vocatives may express a wide variety of features of the discourse situation: honey, dumbass, ma'am, your honor, Franz, Franz Kafka, Mr. Kafka, waiter, dude, son, comrade (all of these from Zwicky 1974). Biber et al. (1999 andpreviously Leech 1986) indicate that " Vocatives that appear at the beginning of an utterance usually fulfill an attention-getting function, possibly combined with that of identifying the addressee; those that are placed at the end most often contribute to expressing socio-pragmatic meanings which can also accommodate an identification of the addressee". Huddleston and Pullum (2000: 523) also remark that "vocative terms generally convey a considerable amount about the speaker's social relations or emotive attitude towards the addressee, and their primary or sole purpose is often to give expression to this kind of meaning, as in Yes, sir! or I agree, my dear, that it's quite a bargain". This is especially true for those languages that like English language. Potts & Kawahara (2004: 33) suggest that " the basic formal idea is that utterances are made with respect to a pair (W, C), where W is a set of worlds and C is a set of contexts. The performative ASSERT (p) reduces C to one in which in which the agent has asserted p." Nevertheless W is the Context Set, and so should contain all information which are mutually presupposed by speaker and hearer(s). Shiina (2003: 56) states that vocative forms have different pragmatic functions and the following categories represent the pragmatic functions of vocative forms.

The Pragmatic Level of Vocative
1-Ideational function which is device for characterization, Such as comic characters.
3-Interpersonal pragmatic function which is a device to manipulate the relationship. Biber et al. (1999Biber et al. ( :1112 state the relationship between the positions and functions of the term vocative. They indicate that "vocatives occurring in final position are much more common than those in initial position "and the position will depend on the intension of the speaker. These functions of vocatives are liked with the positions of the vocatives within the sentences .So initial vocative position combines function (1) and (2). On the other hand, a final vocative is more likely to combine function (2) with function (3), that of adjusting or reinforcing the social relationship between the speaker and the addressee.

2-The Functions of Vocative
Concerning the functions, they state that there are three functions of vocatives which are the following ones:-
Cathy: Hi, Paul. I was thinking the same thing about you.

Michelle: DJ, what's a consonant?
DJ: Anything that's not a vowel. (Biber et al., 1999(Biber et al., : 1112 In the following example, the function of maintaining and reinforcing social relationships is clear by using the address terms which illustrate the social position of the speaker in this certain conversation by calling the addressed recipient's name. The speaker called the addresses with his last name with the tile, but doesn't indicate the speaker's respect to the addressee but it rather indicates the distance and lack of sympathy .In addition to that, the addressee realized that the speaker is sarcasm from him. 28-Rhineheart: You have a problem with authority, Mr. Anderson. You that you are special, that somehow the rules do not apply to you. Obviously, you are mistaken. …The time has come to make a choice, Mr. Anderson. Either you choose to be at your desk on time from this day forth, or you choose to find yourself another job. Do I make myself clear?
So Vocatives in English can be used in two ways as positive politeness and negative politeness at the same time. Watts (2003:16) indicates that there are statements that like "'He always shows a lot of respect towards his superiors', or 'She's always very helpful and obliging', or 'She speaks really well', or 'He always opens doors for the ladies or helps them on with their coats', etc." He (ibid) states that that people have different views concerning the behaviour of person in general "some people feel that polite behaviour is equivalent to socially correct or appropriate behavior or it to be the hallmark of the cultivated man or woman".
And there are some "people who classify polite behaviour negatively, characterising it with such terms as 'standoffish', 'haughty', 'insincere', etc." These are evaluations of polite behaviour in general, but there is another case which is the polite language usage. So there are some ‫اﻟﻌﺎﺷر‬ ‫اﻟدوﻟﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻣﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻣؤﺗﻣر‬ ‫واﺳط‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬ / ‫اﻟﺗرﺑﯾﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻠﯾﺔ‬ expressions like 'the language a person uses to avoid being too direct', or 'language which displays respect towards or consideration for others'. Once again, we might give examples such as 'language which contains respectful forms of address like sir or madam'.
So during the addressing speech, we find that there is an agreement between vocative structures and the principle of politeness.
It would not be appropriate to use a personal noun to someone who is senior to the speaker from a viewpoint of politeness (cf. Suzuki 1973, Takubo, 1997.

29-Do you like this music? (To a teacher by his or her student)
The sentence is not wrong grammatically, but it is not appropriate to be uttered from as student to a teacher .In other words, the problem is from the view point of politeness principle.
In English, you indicates an addressed recipient, and nothing else. Therefore you is used to refer to the addressee regardless of the relationship between the speaker and the addressed recipient. (Suzuki: 1982, 40)

3-Models of Vocative Classification
The meaning of the clauses is expressed by special reference the referent of the addressee .There are different modals which classify vocative forms into different types and the following ones deal with that.

a-Zwicky's Model
According to Zwicky (1974: 32-35) distinguishes two types of vocatives: calls and addresses which he defined them as the following ones 1. Calls which are designed to catch the addressee's attention.

‫اﻟﻌﺎﺷر‬ ‫اﻟدوﻟﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻣﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻣؤﺗﻣر‬ ‫واﺳط‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬ / ‫اﻟﺗرﺑﯾﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻠﯾﺔ‬
There are some items can be used as calls only for example: a. Cabby, take me to Carnegie Hall.
1-The deferential type includes Honorific and Title and Surname T+SN).
2-The familiar type includes surname (SN), first name (FN), shortened first name (shortened FN), familiarisers, kinship terms (Kin) and endearment. Shiina (2003: 58) states that there are three dimensions which deal with the vocative structures in relation to politeness.
1-The dimension of power deals with vocatives between equals and nonequals in status and social roles.
2-The dimension of solidarity refers to vocative use in terms of relationship which means the distance of the interlocutors' relations.
3-The dimension contextual condition which refers both to the situational condition such as formal or informal condition on the one hand, and the emotional condition of the interlocutors such as admiration or contempt.
These three dimensions produce a three-dimensional model of politeness with reference to vocatives forms.

4-Description of the Selected Data and Methodology
The researcher will indicate the vocative forms which are manipulated in the novel "Emma" by Jane Austin. The first publication of this novel was in December 1815. This novel has been adapted by many television programs, stage plays, and several films. The researcher will apply an eclectic model which involves both the lexical forms by Biber et al. (2000:1108-1109) and Shina's model (2003:57) which involves two types of vocative constructions: the deferential type and familiar type. I will limit myself to the dialogues which are uttered by the characters of the novel, pick up them and analysis them according to the mentioned eclectic models. Then I will counting the number of the occurrences of each one of these items of the vocative forms.

Analysis of the Selected Quotations
Quotation 1 "The regular and best families Emma could hardly suppose they would presume to invite neither Dowell, nor Hartfield, nor Randalls. The Coles were very respectable in their way, but they ought to be taught that it was not for them to arrange the terms on which the superior families would visit them (163)" The Coles are not rich family and from lower class. Emma does not want the Coles in her circle, because she is rich and comes from wea"lthyupper class. At that time, the old and rich were always unhappy to invite the new and less-rich or poor families to their parties, homes, and social environment. This quotation clearly shows the dimension of power, power of the old and rich over the weak, new, and less rich or poor. It obviously illustrates the dimension of solidarity-in other words, the huge difference and distance or inequality between the rich and the poor. in terms of forms of vocative, the nickname (the Coles) and the first names in full Dowell, Hartfield, and Randalls are used to fulfill the three functions of vocative respectively: getting someone's attention (Austin wants to get the readers' attention to the new and less rich family, the Coles), identifying someone as an addressee (the Coles), and maintaining and reinforcing social relationships (by using first names in full without surnames, honorifics, etc. this obviously shows the use of negative politeness, it indicates distance and lack of respect.

Quotation 2
"Mr. Weston would undoubtedly support me, if he were here, for he thinks exactly as I do on the subject. We were speaking of it only yesterday, and agreeing how fortunate it was for Emma, that there should be such a girl in Highbury for her to associate with. I think Harriet Smith the very worst sort of companion that Emma could possibly have. She knows nothing herself, and looks upon Emma as knowing everything. She is a flatterer in all her ways; and so much the worse, because undesigned. Her ignorance is hourly flattery. How can Emma imagine she has anything to learn herself, while Harriet is presenting such a delightful inferiority? And as for Harriet, I will venture to say that she cannot gain by the acquaintance. Hartfield will only put her out of conceit with all the other places she belongs to. She will grow just refined enough to be uncomfortable with those among whom birth and circumstances have placed her home (1-3)".
In this quotation, Mr. Knightly is talking about Harriet Smith with Mrs. Weston. Harriet is a poor girl of seventeen. She comes from dubious origins to Highbury, a place where the rich and old like Emma, Mr. Knightly, and the Westons are living. In terms of dimensions, the dimension of power is presented clearly in the words of Mr. Knightly. Mr. Knightly and Mrs. Weston are powerful and have high social status while Harriet is weak and comes from low social status. In terms of solidarity, the inequality, disparity, and contrast can be shown obviously in the above quotation between Mr. Knightly and Harriet, between old and new, and between rich and poor, high social status and low social status. In terms of the dimension of contextual conditions, the attitudes and feelings of Mr. Knightly against Harriet Smith are that of contempt and disdain (strong feeling of dislike). In terms of functions of vocative, Austin wants to attract her readers' attention to the poor and different Harriet Smith, and identify her to the readers. The third vocative function-maintaining and reinforcing social relationships is also used clearly in the quotation. Mr. Knightly uses negative words when he describes Harriet such as undesigned, worst, flatterer, ignorant, and inferior to Emma. He also mentions the place where Harriet should belong to, Hartfield and not the rich and old, Highbury where Emma and all the rich belong to.

Quotation 3
"I never thought of Miss Smith in the whole course of my existence, never paid her any attentions but as your friend: never cared whether she were dead or alive, but as your friend. If she has fancied otherwise, her own wishes have misled her, and I am very sorry-extremely sorry-but, Miss Smith, indeed!-Oh! Miss Woodhouse! Who can think of Miss Smith, when Miss Woodhouse is near! (124)". This quotation is spoken by Mr. Elton to Emma when he refused Emma's suggestion of marrying Harriet in the carriage after the party on Christmas Eve. Dimensions of power, solidarity, and contextual condition are shown clearly in the quotation. Dimension of power is presented by the powerful speech of Mr. Elton over the poor and weak Harriet. In terms of solidarity, the huge difference and inequality between Mr. Elton and Harriet are presented clearly in Mr. Elton speech. In terms of contextual condition, the feelings and emotions of Mr. Elton towards Harriet are negative and bad. Austin wants her readers to pay attention to the character of Mr. Elton. In terms of reinforcing social relationships, Mr. Elton uses negative politeness or impoliteness when he speaks on Harriet. Although he mentions her with surname as 'Miss Smith', but he does not express his respect to Harriet, while he shows much respects, honour, and estimation to Emma. He feels that Harriet is inferior to him, so he refused her, and ironically he professed love to Emma failing to notice that Emma is inferior to him.

Quotation 4
"Mrs. Gilbert does not mean to dance, but there is a young lady disengaged whom I should be very glad to see dancing…Miss Smith…Miss Smith!-oh! I had not observed. You are extremely obliging-and if I were not an old married man, but my dancing days are over, Mrs. Weston". This quotation is spoken by Mr. Elton in the Dancing at the Crown, a big party planned by Emma, Churchill, and Mr. and Mrs. Weston. This speech is considered very impolite of Mr. Elton when he refuses to ask Harriet to dance with him. Mr. Elton first asks Mrs. Weston and then Mrs. Gilbert but they refused to dance with him. Mrs. Weston points to Harriet because she is ‫اﻟﻌﺎﺷر‬ ‫اﻟدوﻟﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻣﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻣؤﺗﻣر‬ ‫واﺳط‬ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬ / ‫اﻟﺗرﺑﯾﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻠﯾﺔ‬ sitting without a partner, but Mr. Elton refused to dance with her by saying that he is an old married man and his dancing days are over. This quotation also shows dimension of power and inequality between Mr. Elton and Harriet. Harriet is inferior to him, therefore he refused to dance with her, while he never hesitates when he asks Mrs. Gilbert and Mrs. Weston, because they are equal to him.

5-Conclusions
The analysis has shown that there are differences among the use of vocative forms which are uttered by the characters of the novel. These forms are uttered according to different factors such as social factors which include the relationship between the characters, the situation of the dialogue and even the mood of the speech act. This paper has allowed us to discriminate between the formal and the informal levels depending on the vocative utterances which are spoken by the characters of the novel. This paper has showed that the choice of vocative forms may be determined by the domain the language is being used in, such as with family, among friends and in religious, educational and employment settings. Social factors such as who we are speaking to , the social context of the interaction , the topic , function and goal of the interaction , social distance between speakers , the formality of the setting or type of interaction and the status of the speakers are also important for the language choice that a person makes in these kinds of settings .The statistical results have showed that the total sum of the vocative forms within the deferential type is more than the total sum of the vocative forms in other types.